In article describes social and economic development of Russia in ??? century. Special attention was paid to the study of different reforms of emperors of the time. They have radically changed the country to better side and put it on the path of intensive socio-economic development. Some of that reforms saved Russia from rebellions, others led to them. Modern scientists have the opportunity to analyze the errors of the time. Many people are interested in what caused these reforms and the consequences they brought. This article answers these questions.

The article is devoted to the history of relations between the state and the Church. In the history of the Church there are many dramatic pages: rivalry and open confrontation, the desire of the Church authorities to subdue the state power and the struggle of the state for a way out of the influence and control of the Church. Special attention is paid to the relations of secular and Church authorities, which permeate the histo-ry of many States. These relations served as the basis for the development of various philosophical theories, changes in social ideas about the functions of religious ideology. In recent years, the influence of the Church and religious norms and values on the life of society in post-socialist States has increased markedly. This is to some extent due to a significant change in living conditions and approach to religion as the most important unifying force and factor of spiritual and moral revival of Russia. It is shown that today in Russia there is a consolidation of religious denominations and freedom of religion is the highest value.

This article primarily addresses the issue of state social policy. Social policy plays a huge role in the domestic policy of any state, since problems arising in the social sphere are directly related to the development of the economic and political life of the country, and therefore are a kind of indicator of the development of society. The study of social policy issues has long been in the spotlight. Social policy, being one of the most important components of state activity, should not only mitigate negative social phenomena, but also help the population adapt to new conditions, promote social support for reforms, implement positive changes in the economy, ensure social orientation of the population. For modern Russia, this issue today is particularly relevant due to the need to form a new model of social policy. At present, first of all, it is necessary to find a solution regarding the role of the state in the new social policy, its functions and interaction with public institutions.

The article deals with the economic activity of the main part of the Russian population in the first half of the XIX century. Special attention is paid to the life of peasants, their homes and customs. Russian peasants were quite modest in household use. Also in the article it is spoken about food which in the conditions of natural, consumer character of country economy was result of production activity of the farmer. The article describes the everyday and celebration clothes, which preserved the traditional, archaic features formed in ancient times. Attention is paid to the shoes worn by peasants. An impressive shift in the existence of Russian society was the state, almost most of which were in slavery, but at the beginning of this period they became free. However, the latest trends often did not displace the old ones, which, in turn, hindered the development of the country. All this helps us to more accurately imagine the life of the peasants of the XIX century.

The article is devoted to the history of relations between the state and the Church. In the history of the Church there are many dramatic pages: rivalry and open confrontation, the desire of the Church authorities to subdue the state power and the struggle of the state for a way out of the influence and control of the Church. Special attention is paid to the relations of secular and Church authorities, which permeate the histo-ry of many States. These relations served as the basis for the development of various philosophical theories, changes in social ideas about the functions of religious ideology. In recent years, the influence of the Church and religious norms and values on the life of society in post-socialist States has increased markedly. This is to some extent due to a significant change in living conditions and approach to religion as the most important unifying force and factor of spiritual and moral revival of Russia. It is shown that today in Russia there is a consolidation of religious denominations and freedom of religion is the highest value.

The article is devoted to the history of relations between the state and the Church. In the history of the Church there are many dramatic pages: rivalry and open confrontation, the desire of the Church authorities to subdue the state power and the struggle of the state for a way out of the influence and control of the Church. Special attention is paid to the relations of secular and Church authorities, which permeate the histo-ry of many States. These relations served as the basis for the development of various philosophical theories, changes in social ideas about the functions of religious ideology. In recent years, the influence of the Church and religious norms and values on the life of society in post-socialist States has increased markedly. This is to some extent due to a significant change in living conditions and approach to religion as the most important unifying force and factor of spiritual and moral revival of Russia. It is shown that today in Russia there is a consolidation of religious denominations and freedom of religion is the highest value.

The question, who is a philosopher? seems simple at surface value but when looked at deeply, becomes perplexing and even annoying. What criteria are to be used to categorize someone as a philosopher? In answer to this question, many criteria have been given in history; some of them too embracing that, there make all human beings philosophers, and some too strict that some who have a genuine claim to being philosophers are shockingly left out. I have been bothered for years about the loose criteria that qualifies every human as a philosopher, but what prompt this research is the strict criteria that put even those with a Ph.D in philosophy at risk of being excluded from the category - philosopher. This worrying criterion is the one adopted by Chimakonam and others of his ilk. They argue that a philosopher is one that mainly creates ideas. This research lays forth a criteria for assessing who a philosopher is – one that avoids both extremes, bridges the dichotomy between thought and practice and would enhance the speedy development of African philosophy. As will be explained in the body of the work, a philosopher is one who consciously and deliberately either preoccupies self with the creation of ideas, interprets (analyzes) ideas or applies ideas.

In article discusses the historical processes of the status of the nobility in Russia in the XIX century. It is shown that it was the nobility that was one of the socially significant groups of the pre-revolutionary society. Despite the fact that hereditary noblemen made up an insignificant share of the total population of Russia, they played an important and sometimes decisive role in state and public life. Particular attention is paid to the life of the nobility, their traditions, which were characteristic of Russian society in the second half of the XIX century. For the international community, the article is of interest in the light of local historical studies, which indicate the main directions of the historical paradigms of the Russian nobility. The study of the status of the nobility in Russia will make it possible to more deeply and thoroughly explore the processes taking place with this social group in the 19th century in the context of the beginning transition from traditional (agrarian) to modern (industrial) society.

In article discusses the role of the church in medieval society, where religion and the church continued to be an important component of medieval culture. In the context of the general decline of culture immediately after the collapse of the Roman Empire, only the Church was the only social institution common to all countries of Western Europe. The church was not only the dominant political institution, but also had a significant impact directly on the consciousness of the population. In a difficult and scanty life, against the background of an extremely limited and unreliable knowledge of the world, the Church offered the people a moral worldview system. This religious worldview fully determined the mentality of the population of Western Europe based on the interpretation of the Bible.

This article highlights the significance of the work “Firdaws al-iqbal” as a monumental historical source. The work provides an observation for the works of researchers Ruzimbaev S., Ahmedov A., Khudoyberganov K., Khollieva G., Mutalov O., Matniyazov M. and other scientists as well as the research of the history of the period of Muhammad Rahimkhan I during the years of independence in Uzbekistan. The information about the scientists who conducted research on the period of Muhammad Rahimkhan I is also presented. Opinions regarding the consolidated edition of the work published in Leyden and the publications announced in 2010 in Uzbek language are provided as well. Not only historical but also literary value of the work is accentuated.

Rigveda and Atharvaveda Shaunaka Samhitas have been carefully analyzed to check whether they mention copper or bronze swords. It has turned out that both texts do not know swords (only knives) and therefore must be dated in their habitats in the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent prior to the introduction of such weapons into the region. Swords have been archaeologically evidenced both in the Indus valley and in the Yamuna–Ganges Doab only after 2000 BC. This confirms the dating of Atharvaveda Shaunaka prior to 2000 BC, and of more archaic Rigveda – a few centuries earlier (prior to 2600 BC). Then all available data on the copper and bronze swords of different types (straight double-edged, machete–cleaver, sickle-shaped, rapier‘, harpoon‘) originating from the Old World and dating back to 3500– 2000 BC have been collected and scrutinized. Thus Cyclades, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine/ Israel/ Canaan, North-Western Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Akkad, Sumer, Elam and Bactria–Margiana territories have been excluded from the possible homelands of Indo-Aryans in the periods when they already had copper or bronze swords.

The question of the dual orientation of the historical process is currently being sharply debated. On the one hand, in the course of history, there is a desire for unity and integrity of the human community, on the other - we see a tendency for each subject to preserve the social reality of his independence, uniqueness and individuality. This contradiction is not a product of the theoretical reflection of researchers; this phenomenon has objective grounds hidden in the dialectical essence of social phenomena, the nature of which has not been sufficiently studied. This circumstance leads to the fact that researchers disagree about the driving mechanisms and the nature of the historical process. Some highlight the idea of unity, others the idea of identity. This is where various versions of the course of history emerge, among which the most debatable in social philosophy are concepts based on two alternative approaches - linear-formational and cultural-civilizational. Modern science can adequately and accurately describe the specific societies that existed in the historical process, but does not have the tools that would clearly define the system-forming bases of civilizations. Thus, there is a crisis in the modern methodology of socio-historical knowledge. The methodology is designed to form the scientific and educational background for the conduct of specific historical research: from the formulation of the problem to the interpretation of the results. Closely related to the methodology are research methods, which include procedures, techniques and tools for research, analysis, validation and evaluation of data. It must be assumed that the future of the methodology of comprehending the historical process will depend on a fruitful dialogue between various approaches and models developed and developed in the field of social and humanitarian knowledge. The philosophical and historical concept of Arnold Toynbee suggests a synthesis of linear and civilizational approaches to the historical process. The article presents a brief biography of Arnold Toynbee, which allows to understand the formation and evolution of the views of the English historian. We consider the methods of knowledge of history, used in